Resisting Expectations: The Role of Courtesans and Prostitutes

A Globalization of Popular Culture

Researcher: Krysten Lynn Ryba, email address: marlasinger21@aol.com

Topic Description

The main focus of this project is to examine the similarities between the Japanese geisha, Turkish harem girl, courtesans of India and prostitutes in the United States, both in these structures themselves, and in terms of the societies creating them.

Discussion of Topic

This topic is significant on a number of levels. The status of these different roles varied greatly depending on the individual society. While the geishas and even the harem are revered as a cultural preservation, promotion of traditional arts, the connotations courtesans and prostitutes are decidedly negative. Considering the resemblance between these professions, how each society interprets them, and even how the interpretations have changed, speaks of the values, or perhaps of the dominant values, of that society.

Another point of significance is found within the women of these professions themselves. Using the concept of “interpretive communities” from Radway’s article, what are the basic assumptions that these women share? Are they the same function in each different group, and if not, why? How do the women interpret their roles and status, speaks of their own values, be it shared or not, with the dominant culture.

Finally, globally is there one common sociological theme that can be derived to offer a larger explanation of the emergence of such “subcultures”?

Methods 

It was necessary to gather information about the history and traditions of each group and this was primarily completed through relentless searching of academic articles as well as the Internet. Of equal importance, understanding how dominant social institutions, specifically religion in Japan, India and Turkey and the media in the United States, created and imposed expectations on women. This was accomplished through learning about the institutions and expectations directly, but also through the opposition of those expectations as manifested in the roles cultures of courtesans and prostitution.

Findings and Data
	U.S. Prostitutes	The Courtesans of India	Turkish Harem Girls	Japanese Geishas
Traditional Functions and Meanings (Historical and Sociological Contexts)	Prostitution was part of U.S. culture from its origins, though its level of discussion varied. It has, to a certain extent, always been apart of social rebellion to dominant cultural norms.	In the Eighteenth Century (pre-British Colonization) Courtesans were influential elite in Hindu and Muslim kingdoms, commanding respect by both society and nobles. In fact, often they instructed nobles on proper etiquette (Oldenburg 1-3)	The position of women as part of the imperial harems of the Ottoman Empire in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries served the essential functions of entertainment, but also of potential concubines for members of the sultan's court.	As earlier as the eleventh century, geishas have served as entertainment and hostess first for warriors, then for elite, often in theaters or teahouses. They provide singing, dancing, companionship and conversation, upholding high standards of tradition.
Structural Organization	Presently, prostitution itself is seen as divided into types, streetwalking, escort-services, strippers, and call girls, and there is further organization among each type. For example, streetwalkers can be "managed" by pimps, and locations are divvied.	Hierarchical organization consisting of chief courtesan whom received portion of earnings to maintain salon, hired and trained other girls in conversation, etiquette, and in later years, sexual services and manipulation. Second tier, "sister" structured.	Hierarchical organization was based around the roles within the sultan's family, which was in turn, based on favor and beauty. Women, low status to high status, were virgins, "one night stands", favorites, and "wives", however, one could rise in rank.	Hierarchical organization in a familial form. "Older sisters" aids in the training of a younger apprentice, while the "mother" takes collective responsibility for the skills and training of all sisters under her. This structure is rooted in Japanese myth.
Training	It is my argument, that "training" is begun through sexual representation in the media and the commercialization of the exposed female body. This trend seems to teach sex is a profitable, public act, which is a good basis for acts of prostitution.	Initially, traditional aspects of culture taught (manners, dancing, ect.) However, the rigorous training in late nineteenth (to present) focuses pleasing patrons and on devious "routines" in order to coax money out of patrons (Oldenburg).	If a girl possessed extraordinary beauty and talent, she learned to dance, recite poetry and master erotic arts. Those in highest positions of rank served as a teachers or guides of state policies.	Extensive training, usually beginning before puberty, is required. Consists of learning to play samisen (musical instrument), singing, and all other traditional arts. Also, strict dress/costume rules are instilled. Often qualifying exam required.
Social Status of Women Based Upon Values of the Dominant Social Institution(s)	Mass media can be seen as the dominant force in U.S. popular culture. It has perpetuated inequality in women's status by commodifying sexual, and essentially female, images. Closely related to sex industry is persisting economic disparity between sexes.	The religious institutions of both Hindu and Islam, especially through the ritual of marriage, oppress women into a subordinate position in which they have no control over their bodies or income, creating unavoidable dependency on men (Oldenburg).	Islamic tradition emphasizes servitude, dependency, objectivity of women as property. This notion is clearly demonstrated in the practice of girls being sold as slaves or given as gifts to the sultan. Islam maintains these "traditions" today.	The emphasis of tradition and obedience in the three major religions in Japan, Shinto, Buddhism and Confucianism, perpetuate male superiority. Women's expected role is to submit and care for family, to do otherwise is seen as disrespectful.
Perception of Role and its Values by Participants	It is difficult to generalize how women who enter prostitution view their role. Some may seek its financial and bodily "control", while others recognize the exploitation, yet years of abuse or trauma, keep them participating.	Without means to fight or challenge oppression, they are drawn to courtesan lifestyle as an escape. Seen as a process of rehabilitation to restore confidence and resocialize their concepts of gender and associated roles.	Harem girls enjoyed security of their power and position, especially as they moved up the hierarchy. They saw their role as essential to the sustainment of the sultan's family, and thus serving an important political role in society.	Geishas view themselves as preservers of tradition and art, the antithesis of prostitution. The profession is often associated with immense social and family pressures. They do experience independence from men, as they're choosing their own lifestyle.
Perceptions and Misconceptions of Role and its Values by Society	U.S. society views prostitution as both deviant and illegal for the implications it has on family structure and crime. However, the combination of consumerism and increased relaxation of sexual norms, sends a mixed message of values.	Especially after British colonization, perceived as common prostitutes. Also, kidnapping is seen as the major source of recruitment.	Western attitudes and definitions of eroticism in the nineteenth century projected suppressed sexual fantasies to foreign, eastern lands. Pornography portrayed the veiled Turkish women as figures of repressed sexual desire subject to brutality and sadism.	Perhaps it is the present relationship between business and the geisha's services that allow it to be looked at as artful prostitution, however, it is repeatedly claimed NOT to be so.
Current Trends and Issues of Roles, Including Criticisms	{Obviously} Feminists attribute activity such as prostitution as the direct result of gender inequalities that are fueled by most social (patriarchal) institutions and especially the portrayal of sex and women in the media.	Oldenburgs' study revealed lesbianism among courtesans is common to this counterculture, though rarely discussed. The roles of courtesans have diminished in light of newly emerging educational and employment opportunities for women.	The harem girl's function is seen as equivocal with the modern role of belly dancers as sexual entertainers. Recently, Middle Eastern feminists are speaking out about the suppression of women due to strict religious and political tradition.	The ever-increasing interest in the business and tourism industries of Japan, in addition to the strong attitudes about mixing that business with pleasure may sustain the declining institution of the geisha. However, commercialization may take the lead.

 Conclusions

The similarities between these different cultural roles are quite easy to identify. Perhaps more importantly, there exists common resonation of resistance and resentment to the social expectations of women, as imposed by the dominant institutions of the individual society. The assumptions these women share are that these roles present them with economic and property independence. It seems that geishas, harem girls, courtesans and even prostitutes all share solidarity to reject the values of patriarchal domination, whether it be religious, political or guided by the media. Simply stated, establishing these counter-cultural lifestyles is their way of participating in society, without embracing its sentiments.

References

Dalla, Rochelle L., “Exposing the “Pretty Woman” Myth: A Qualitative Examination of the Lives of Female Streetwalking Prostitutes.,” The Journal of Sex Research v. 37 n. 4 (Nov. 2000): p. 344-53

Meyerowitz, Joanne, “Women, Cheesecake, and Borderline Material: Responses to Girlie Pictures in the Mid-Twentieth -Century U.S.,” Journal of Women’s History v. 8 n. 3 (Oct. 1997) p. 9

McKay, Jenny, “Manuals for Courtesans,” Critical Quarterly v. 41 n.1: p. 73-81

Seeberg, Sarah, ”The Harem in Topkapi Place,” The Dawn n. 37: p. 13

Oldenburg, Veena Talwar, “Lifestyle As Resistance: The Case of The Courtesans Of Lucknow, India,” Feminist Studies v. 16 n. 2 (1990): p. 259

http://www.abbedon.com/electricminds/html/wwj_tokyo_1489.html

http://www.hartwick.edu/library/hewlett/lisa/port6.htm

http://www.ds-haven.com/treats/geisha.html

http://www.geocities.com/TheTropics/Paradise/5831/harem.htm

https://members.tripod.com/~warlight/KAMIL_9.html